New York, N.Y. Carol Noll Hoskins passed away at the age of ninety in May 2023. Dr. Hoskins was predeceased by her husband Donald W. Hoskins, M.D. and is survived by three children, eight grandchildren, and four great-grandchildren.
She earned degrees from Cornell University (B.S.N. ’55) and New York University (Ph.D. ’78, M.A. ’73) and was a professor of nursing at N.Y.U. During her long and distinguished academic career, Dr. Hoskins authored numerous publications, was a Senior Fulbright Scholar, and an FAAN. She also served with her late husband on the Board of Orphans International America in the late 2000’s.
At our Orphans International Worldwide benefit in the home of Peter Yarrow of Peter, Paul & Mary, Peter took special care of Ethel.
Although Ethel had never been to Guyana, she was happy to attend an event for that country in my living room across the street from her home on Roosevelt Island.
Ethel edited for me the following stories for publication:
Ethel Romm receiving Orphans International Humanitarian Award at our Fifth Annual Gala, held at the United Nations. Posing here with the evening’s M.C.
After Grodzins House opens, it’s time for our kids to have some fun – wrestling on their new beds!Ethel (second from left) presented at our first World Congress for Orphans International Worldwide in Bali, Indonesia (2004).Ethel Romm with our freinds at the orphans International Fifth Anniversary Evening at the United Nations.
In the mid-1980s, when televangelists dominated American airwaves and the Religious Right wielded unprecedented political influence, Jim Luce and his partner Richard Yao took on one of the most powerful forces in conservative Christianity. Their organization, Fundamentalists Anonymous, became so effective at exposing what they termed the “Fundamentalist Mindset” and offering support to those struggling with “religious addiction” that Rev. Jerry Falwell himself declared them the “#1 enemy of the Gospel.”
From pioneering discussions about religious addiction on national television to shadowing Pat Robertson’s presidential campaign and testifying against prominent televangelists in Congress, Luce’s work in the late 20th century presaged many of the religious and political battles that continue to shape American society today. His insights into the intersection of fundamentalist theology, political power, and psychological manipulation remain strikingly relevant in an era where similar ideological forces have found new expression in contemporary politics.
Because of Maoist guerrillas in the rural countryside of Jarkhand Province north of Kolkata, the government sends commando soldiers to offer armed escort when I visit.
Walking the pack along the tranquil East River promenade on Roosevelt Island with the 59th Street Bridge in the background.
The Shih Tzu Rescue Society of New York is a service project of the New York Global Leaders Lions Club, a special e-club which meets monthly on Zoom.
New York, N.Y. Aorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus euismod consequat est maximus eleifend. Phasellus elementum ipsum facilisis mi feugiat, non volutpat erat consequat. Nulla facilisi. Quisque tincidunt, ipsum eget posuere pulvinar, libero tortor tempor quam, non lacinia nibh lacus sed tortor. Aenean rhoncus lacus sed ipsum congue, nec imperdiet tellus aliquet. Curabitur auctor tortor at tortor sodales dictum. Sed auctor bibendum lorem, et viverra tortor.
Bruce arrived from the Anial COntro Center and now lives happily up the Hudosn River.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis. Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros.
Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et. Proin laoreet nibh sit amet mi consequat vehicula. Duis ultrices imperdiet hendrerit. Ut tincidunt iaculis ipsum, ut pretium tellus viverra rhoncus. Vivamus mattis nibh ac auctor vulputate.
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The Animal Control Center of New York often sent us small dogs about to be be put down.
Aliquam vitae molestie arcu, ut efficitur purus. Pellentesque facilisis nisl at eros placerat sollicitudin. Quisque aliquet posuere feugiat. In sed metus non nulla iaculis pharetra. Nulla sit amet finibus enim. Nunc elit ligula, convallis nec nisi id, interdum cursus nisl. Morbi ut tincidunt ipsum.
Quisque condimentum tellus non malesuada sagittis. Nam nec vehicula elit. Maecenas vel quam congue, scelerisque elit quis, eleifend magna. Vestibulum sed rutrum dui. Aenean feugiat velit eros, id consectetur dolor vestibulum vel. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur congue accumsan massa, ac vestibulum ex cursus ultricies. Praesent accumsan ac metus ac hendrerit. Curabitur laoreet molestie convallis.
Aorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus euismod consequat est maximus eleifend. Phasellus elementum ipsum facilisis mi feugiat, non volutpat erat consequat. Nulla facilisi. Quisque tincidunt, ipsum eget posuere pulvinar, libero tortor tempor quam, non lacinia nibh lacus sed tortor. Aenean rhoncus lacus sed ipsum congue, nec imperdiet tellus aliquet. Curabitur auctor tortor at tortor sodales dictum. Sed auctor bibendum lorem, et viverra tortor.
Clover has found his forever family with us.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis. Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros.
Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et. Proin laoreet nibh sit amet mi consequat vehicula. Duis ultrices imperdiet hendrerit. Ut tincidunt iaculis ipsum, ut pretium tellus viverra rhoncus. Vivamus mattis nibh ac auctor vulputate.
Quisque ornare augue nisi, vitae vulputate mi volutpat et. Pellentesque condimentum consequat ligula, eu ornare ante fringilla egestas. Sed eget efficitur sem, vitae lacinia dolor. Morbi fermentum sollicitudin lectus, eget rutrum lacus volutpat et.
Nulla iaculis dolor id augue luctus, quis dignissim massa faucibus. Proin non felis quis ex molestie dictum quis sit amet libero. Etiam commodo libero pharetra elementum posuere. Integer eu scelerisque sapien. Sed dictum lorem ut lectus convallis, sit amet tempor turpis aliquet. Vivamus ultricies gravida porttitor. Suspendisse tincidunt vestibulum pulvinar. Integer vel consectetur diam, id tristique mi. Integer mattis elementum nisl condimentum posuere.
Snoopy found his special forever home in New Jersey.
Aliquam vitae molestie arcu, ut efficitur purus. Pellentesque facilisis nisl at eros placerat sollicitudin. Quisque aliquet posuere feugiat. In sed metus non nulla iaculis pharetra. Nulla sit amet finibus enim. Nunc elit ligula, convallis nec nisi id, interdum cursus nisl. Morbi ut tincidunt ipsum.
Quisque condimentum tellus non malesuada sagittis. Nam nec vehicula elit. Maecenas vel quam congue, scelerisque elit quis, eleifend magna. Vestibulum sed rutrum dui. Aenean feugiat velit eros, id consectetur dolor vestibulum vel. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur congue accumsan massa, ac vestibulum ex cursus ultricies. Praesent accumsan ac metus ac hendrerit. Curabitur laoreet molestie convallis.
Orem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus euismod consequat est maximus eleifend. Phasellus elementum ipsum facilisis mi feugiat, non volutpat erat consequat. Nulla facilisi.
Our seniors get the special red wagon treatment so they can enjoy their walks despite their infirmities which have included enlarged hear, failing kidneys, and diabetes.
Quisque tincidunt, ipsum eget posuere pulvinar, libero tortor tempor quam, non lacinia nibh lacus sed tortor. Aenean rhoncus lacus sed ipsum congue, nec imperdiet tellus aliquet. Curabitur auctor tortor at tortor sodales dictum. Sed auctor bibendum lorem, et viverra tortor.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis.
Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros. Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et.
“Do those dogs all sleep on your bed?!” A picture says a thousand words…
Cynthia with All Saints Rescue, our partner rescue organization in Rockland County.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis.
Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros. Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et.
Nam ultricies sapien ac augue mattis, eu dignissim neque cursus. Curabitur ac tempor lectus, nec pretium nulla. Sed mi velit, malesuada sit amet dignissim vitae, faucibus eget nibh. Nulla commodo facilisis sem, non pretium tellus rhoncus sed. Donec consequat lacus in commodo lobortis.
Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros. Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et.
Partner Organization
Integer tempor, est et aliquet varius, odio magna luctus dolor, id rhoncus erat nulla non eros. Vestibulum tempor fermentum est, ac placerat ex egestas et.
Proin laoreet nibh sit amet mi consequat vehicula. Duis ultrices imperdiet hendrerit. Ut tincidunt iaculis ipsum, ut pretium tellus viverra rhoncus. Vivamus mattis nibh ac auctor vulputate. Quisque ornare augue nisi, vitae vulputate mi volutpat et. Pellentesque condimentum consequat ligula, eu ornare ante fringilla egestas. Sed eget efficitur sem, vitae lacinia dolor. Morbi fermentum sollicitudin lectus, eget rutrum lacus volutpat et.
Orem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus euismod consequat est maximus eleifend. Phasellus elementum ipsum facilisis mi feugiat, non volutpat erat consequat. Nulla facilisi.
Quisque tincidunt, ipsum eget posuere pulvinar, libero tortor tempor quam, non lacinia nibh lacus sed tortor. Aenean rhoncus lacus sed ipsum congue, nec imperdiet tellus aliquet. Curabitur auctor tortor at tortor sodales dictum. Sed auctor bibendum lorem, et viverra tortor.
“How do you guys rehabilitate aggressive dogs?,” we are asked. “Well,” says Bix Luce, “love!”
Proin laoreet nibh sit amet mi consequat vehicula. Duis ultrices imperdiet hendrerit. Ut tincidunt iaculis ipsum, ut pretium tellus viverra rhoncus. Vivamus mattis nibh ac auctor vulputate. Quisque ornare augue nisi, vitae vulputate mi volutpat et. Pellentesque condimentum consequat ligula, eu ornare ante fringilla egestas. Sed eget efficitur sem, vitae lacinia dolor. Morbi fermentum sollicitudin lectus, eget rutrum lacus volutpat et.
Nulla iaculis dolor id augue luctus, quis dignissim massa faucibus. Proin non felis quis ex molestie dictum quis sit amet libero. Etiam commodo libero pharetra elementum posuere. Integer eu scelerisque sapien. Sed dictum lorem ut lectus convallis, sit amet tempor turpis aliquet. Vivamus ultricies gravida porttitor. Suspendisse tincidunt vestibulum pulvinar. Integer vel consectetur diam, id tristique mi. Integer mattis elementum nisl condimentum posuere.
Aliquam vitae molestie arcu, ut efficitur purus. Pellentesque facilisis nisl at eros placerat sollicitudin. Quisque aliquet posuere feugiat. In sed metus non nulla iaculis pharetra. Nulla sit amet finibus enim. Nunc elit ligula, convallis nec nisi id, interdum cursus nisl. Morbi ut tincidunt ipsum.
Quisque condimentum tellus non malesuada sagittis. Nam nec vehicula elit. Maecenas vel quam congue, scelerisque elit quis, eleifend magna. Vestibulum sed rutrum dui. Aenean feugiat velit eros, id consectetur dolor vestibulum vel. Aliquam erat volutpat. Curabitur congue accumsan massa, ac vestibulum ex cursus ultricies. Praesent accumsan ac metus ac hendrerit. Curabitur laoreet molestie convallis.
Mexico’s significance, as witnessed through Jim Luce’s travels to the vibrant Mexico City and the border town of Tijuana, lies in its rich historical and cultural tapestry that predates much of the United States. Mexico City, a thriving metropolis before Boston’s founding, embodies centuries of indigenous and colonial heritage. Yet, many Americans remain unaware that vast regions, including California and much of the U.S. West, were once Mexican territory, ceded through historical conflicts. This complex history underscores Mexico’s enduring influence on North American identity, culture, and shared borders.
Annabella Gonzalez Dance Troupe Presents Spring Series Juntos, Featuring “Unidos” (Together)
Nālandā had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with meditation halls and classrooms. On the grounds were lakes and parks.
Who knew? The first great university in recorded human history was Buddhist and in India — 500 years B.C. — and destroyed by Islamic invaders in 1193.
Bihar, India. The next stop of our pilgrimage is the ancient center of higher learning, Nālandā. Unknown to me before in New York, the Buddhists built the first great university in recorded human history. Established around 500 BC, it had over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers from around the world. The library was located in a nine storied building where meticulous copies of texts were produced. It contained over fifty million books and documents – more than the Ivy League libraries of Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Cornell combined! Tragically, in 1193 the city was conquered and destroyed by Islamic forces, causing the decline of Buddhism in India. The name Nālandā means, “insatiable giving.”
Who knew? The first great university in recorded human history was Buddhist and in India — 500 years B.C. — and destroyed by Islamic invaders in 1193.
The complex was built with red bricks – ubiquitous to this area of India, with brick factories still doting the countryside – and its ruins occupy an area of 35 acres. This is estimated at only ten percent of its original 350 acres – about the total size of Harvard’s campus today. Nālandā was one of the world’s first residential universities. At its peak, the university attracted scholars and students from as far away as China, Greece, and Ancient Persia. Nālandā was ransacked and destroyed by Islamic invaders in 1193. The great library of Nālandā University had been so vast that it is reported to have burned for three months after the invaders set fire to it. The invaders ransacked and destroyed the monasteries there as well, driving the monks from the site – many of whom fled to Tibet.
Interior of the incredible Nālandā ruins so difficult to capture on film. Photo: author.
Paraphrased from Wikipedia, an always-helpful helpful travel guide (along with my personal favorite Lonely Planet):
“Thousands of monks were slaughtered under Islamic leader Khilji tried to conquer Buddhist Nālandā and plant his rule by the sword. The destruction of the temples, monasteries, centers of learning at Nālandā and northern India to be responsible for the demise of ancient Indian scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.
“The university was considered an architectural masterpiece, and was marked by a lofty wall and one gate. Interestingly, archeologists have yet to find that one gate, so they have carved a gate through an existing wall which provided us entry into the formidable complex. Having tried and failed to photograph the aftermath of the Tsunami – it resembled a gigantic landfill; and how can you capture villages and villagers that are no longer there?
I felt I was not up to the task of capturing images of Nālandā. Nālandā had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with many other meditation halls and classrooms. On the grounds were lakes and parks. The subjects taught at Nālandā University covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia, and Turkey.
The secretary of Manjushree Buddhist Orphanage guided us through the Nālandā ruins. Photo: author.
I was stunned to learn that the curriculum of Nālandā University had contained virtually the entire range of world knowledge available at the time. Courses were drawn from every field of learning, Buddhist and Hindu, sacred and secular, foreign and native. Students studied science, astronomy, medicine, and logic as diligently as they applied themselves to metaphysics, philosophy, and the scriptures of Buddhism. They studied foreign philosophy likewise. A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā teachers and traditions.
How can the glory days of Buddhism be restored?, I wondered. Luckily, many minds far greater than mine have wondered the same thing: Singapore, China, India, Japan, and several other nations, have announced and proposed to restore and revive the ancient site as Nālandā International University. The New York Times detailed a plan in the works to spend $1 billion to revive Nālandā University near the ancient site: $500 million to build a new university and another $500 million to develop necessary infrastructure.
The arch as an architectural devise was first used by the Romans – and the Buddhists. Photo: author.
It is anticipated that 1,137 international students will enroll in its first year, and 4,530 by the fifth. “Nālandā U.” would largely be a post-graduate research university, with the following schools: Buddhist Studies, Philosophy and Comparative Religion; Historical Studies; International Relations and Peace; Business Management and Development; Languages and Literature, as well as the School of Ecology and Environmental Studies. How grand is that? The objective of the school will be aimed at advancing the concept of a pan-Asian community and rediscovering their magnificent roots.
Of course, modern Muslims are as responsible for the sacking of Nālandā as I am for the Crusades. His Holiness the Dalai Lama has had contact with Islamic and other faith leaders around the world for many years. For example, Dr. Alexander Berzin, a Turkish expert in Tibetan Buddhist traditions, and Dr. Tirmiziou Diallo, the hereditary Sufi religious leader of Guinea, traveled to Dharamshala to meet with the Dalai Lama. In the days prior to the audience, he and Dr. Berzin discussed further the meaning of “people of the Book.” Dr. Diallo felt it refers to people who follow the “Primordial Tradition.”
This can be called the wisdom of Allah or God, or in Buddhist terms, primordial deep awareness. Thus, he readily accepted that the primordial tradition of wisdom was revealed not only by Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, but also by Buddha. If people follow this innate primordial tradition and wisdom, they are “people of the Book.” But, if they go against this basic good and wise nature of humankind and the universe, they are not of the “Book.”
Nālandā International University ruins. Photo: author.
On the last day of his visit, Dr. Diallo had his private audience with the Dalai Lama. Dressed in elegant white robes, the majestic African spiritual leader was so moved upon first being in His Holiness’s presence, he began to weep. Without asking his attendant as he normally would, the Dalai Lama personally went to his anteroom and brought back a tissue, which he offered the Sufi master to wipe his tears. Dr. Diallo presented His Holiness with a traditional Muslim headdress, which His Holiness put on without hesitation and wore for the remainder of the audience.
His Holiness opened the dialogue by explaining that if both Buddhists and Muslims remain flexible in their thinking, fruitful and open dialogue is possible. The encounter was extremely warm and emotionally touching. His Holiness asked numerous questions about the Sufi meditation tradition, specifically concerning the West African lineages that emphasize the practice of love, compassion, and service. Dr. Diallo had been living in exile for many years in Germany after a communist takeover of his country. There were many things in common that the two men shared. Both His Holiness and Dr. Diallo pledged to continue the Islamic-Buddhist dialogue in the future.
Attending the Kalachakra in Bodhgaya, India with His Holiness The Dalai Lama, I am hearing a constant message that modern Buddhists must embrace academic achievement and international enlightenment and interfaith dialogue as much as Enlightenment itself. I applaud all efforts to help move all nations and peoples – Buddhist or not – forward through higher education.
Last week, on May 14th, I was privileged to be part of a group of Buddhist monastics, teachers, and leaders who converged on Washington DC for a conference on the role of Buddhism in the public square. The idea to convene such a conference originated with Bill Aiken, Public Affairs Officer for Soka Gakkai International–USA, who began to lay plans for the gathering as far back as December 2014. He established a steering committee, which eventually came to consist of Danny Hall (also of SGI), Professor Duncan Williams, Professor Sallie King, Matt Regan, Rev. T.K. Nakagaki, and myself. The list of invitees, originally set at 80, increased incrementally until it amounted to approximately 125, the maximum that could comfortably fit into the facilities provided. Representatives included monks, nuns, ministers, academics, yogis, lay Dharma teachers, and Buddhist activists from all traditions, with a balanced blend of Asian immigrant Buddhists and convert American Buddhists.
The original goal of the event, as Bill Aiken conceived it, was to “to utilize the convening power of the White House to bring together a wide range of Buddhist community leaders to affirm our shared commitment to preventing climate change, sharing community best practices, and hearing from Obama administration representatives on issues of concern to us.” As preparations unfolded, two main points of focus emerged. One was climate change, which poses an ever-escalating threat to the security of human life on earth. The other, highlighted by the recent spate of police killings of unarmed people of color, has been the need for this country to finally implement full racial justice in all spheres of our communal life.
As a seasoned observer of global affairs, Jim Luce brings decades of analytical expertise to bear on South Asia’s rapidly evolving landscape. His writings traverse the region’s complex political terrain—from Bangladesh’s educational imperatives and Pakistan’s democratic struggles to the global influence of South Asian leaders like FTC Chair Lina Khan. Through incisive reporting and thoughtful analysis, Luce illuminates how local developments in this vital region ripple across international boundaries, offering readers essential insights into the forces shaping nearly a quarter of humanity’s future.
Jim Luce’s connection to Germany runs deep and personal, shaped by family history and transformative experience. His father helped liberate Dachau concentration camp under General Patton, leaving an indelible mark on the family’s understanding of both the horrors of the Nazi regime and the resilience of the human spirit. A generation later, Jim spent his final high school year studying at Max-Planck Gymnasium in Bielefeld, West Germany, an immersive experience that sparked his lifelong commitment to global citizenship and led him to minor in German in college. The essays collected here span this complex relationship—from the personal challenges and growth of his AFS exchange year to Germany’s ongoing reckoning with its darkest chapters, from medieval villages frozen in time to contemporary political transformations reshaping the nation. Through Luce’s perspective, Germany emerges as a country of profound contradictions: a land of innovation and culture that must continuously confront the weight of history, a nation forever changed by its past yet determinedly building its future.
Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands including Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines represent one of the world’s most culturally dynamic and strategically vital regions. This area encompassing diverse nations whose histories, traditions, and contemporary developments profoundly shape global culture and geopolitical stability. Here we explore the rich tapestry of voices from across the region, featuring dedicated sections highlighting the literary traditions of Thailand, Cambodia, and Indonesia, alongside carefully curated translations that make these powerful narratives accessible to broader audiences through Indonesian, Thai, and Mandarin Chinese editions. These stories illuminate the complex social, political, and cultural forces that continue to influence not only regional development but also international relations and cross-cultural understanding in our interconnected world.
Jim Luce brings a deeply personal perspective to his writings on poverty, shaped by extensive volunteer work in Appalachia and urban communities along the East Coast, as well as immersive experiences living and studying throughout the Global South. Understanding that poverty extends far beyond income to encompass deprivations in education, food security, healthcare, shelter, political inclusion, choice, safety, and dignity, his work examines the systemic forces that perpetuate these interconnected inequalities and the innovative approaches that offer pathways toward holistic human development. From exploring how education initiatives in Lima’s marginalized communities challenge entrenched social barriers, to analyzing the troubling paradox of corporate giants like Walmart profiting from government assistance programs while their own workers rely on those same subsidies, Luce illuminates the complex economic and social structures that sustain multidimensional poverty. His observations are informed by firsthand encounters with communities facing challenges as varied as child malnutrition in Guatemala and economic precarity in America’s wealthiest nation, always seeking to understand not just the statistics of deprivation but the human stories and systemic failures behind them.
Gran Colombia was a republic that existed from 1819 to 1831 and included parts of northern South America and southern Central America led by military leader Simón Bolívar and fought to unite the regions.. This included the territories of modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, and Peru. Western Guyana and northwest Brazil were included, but not in this summary.
April 19, 1943 – the Uprising began. A quarter of a million Jews had been deported from the ghetto to Treblinka and murdered, the remaining Jews began to build bunkers and smuggle weapons and explosives into the ghetto. The uprising started when the ghetto refused to surrender to the police, who had ordered the destruction of the ghetto, block by block, ending on May 16. A total of 13,000 Jews were killed, about half of them burnt alive or suffocated.
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New York, N.Y. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany’s final effort to transport the remaining ghetto population to the gas chambers of the Majdanek and Treblinkaextermination camps.
Post card. Great Synagogue of Warsaw, destroyed in 1943.
After the Grossaktion Warsaw–the “Great Action”–of summer 1942, in which more than a quarter of a million Jews were deported from the ghetto to Treblinka and murdered, the remaining Jews began to build bunkers and smuggle weapons and explosives into the ghetto.
The left-wing Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) and right-wing Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) formed and began to train. A small resistance effort to another roundup in January 1943 was partially successful and spurred Polish resistance groups to support the Jews in earnest.
The uprising started on April 19th when the ghetto refused to surrender to the police commander S.S.-BrigadeführerJürgen Stroop, who ordered the destruction of the ghetto, block by block, ending on 16 May. A total of 13,000 Jews were killed, about half of them burnt alive or suffocated. Stroop reported 110 German casualties, including 17 killed.
The uprising was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II.
The Jews knew that victory was impossible and survival unlikely. Marek Edelman, the last surviving ŻOB commander who died in 2009, said their inspiration to fight was “not to allow the Germans alone to pick the time and place of our deaths.” According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the uprising was “one of the most significant occurrences in the history of the Jewish people.”
